Moreover, it is technically and economically feasible to use microorganisms instead of expensive chemicals, biological enzymes or mechanical equipment. Short-time extruders provide fast heat transfer, proper mixing, and increased shear. Disclaimer, National Library of Medicine Hence, some researchers are focusing on black liquor recycling to reduce the cost as well as the pollution (Siddhu et al. RSC Adv 4:4810948127. During SE pretreatment, lignocellulosic material is exposed to a high-pressure saturated steam at a temperature of 160260C and a corresponding pressure of 550atm for a few minutes. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.07.030, Weiwei L, Huan M, Chengmao C, Zhiliang Y, Minhui Z, Xiaoling K, Xiaochen H (2012) Effects of pretreatments with steam-explosion using solar energy and microwave irradiation on biogas production of corn stalk. We would like to thank the financial support from Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology. doi:10.1186/s13068-014-0176-9, Article High enzymatic hydrolysis rates are achieved by the use of single and twin screw extruders. As compared to untreated manure and sludge, 80% methane from manure and twofold increase in methane production from sludge were recorded in the study. Lignocellulose composition: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. PubMed doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2013.10.038, Yang B, Wyman CE (2008) Pretreatment : the key to unlocking low-cost cellulosic ethanol. 2005; Kumar et al. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. BioResources 11:45504563, Singh J, Suhag M, Dhaka A (2015a) Augmented digestion of lignocellulose by steam explosion, acid and alkaline pretreatment methods: a review. Other advantages include less toxicity to yeast, no odor, more range of pH and temperature for hydrolysis, and no hampering of glycolysis. Much research is needed to explore methods for lowering the cost of the conversion process. At low field strength, structural changes are less likely to occur. This pretreatment also generates new surface area, improves flow properties, and increases the bulk density and porosity. Another potential disadvantage is that some fraction of the carbohydrate is consumed by the microorganisms. 2011). Liquid ammonia is used in AFEX technique whereas in ammonia recycle percolation method/technique, aqueous ammonia is used. 2008). doi:10.1021/bp070193v, Overend RP, Chornet E (1987) Fractionation of lignocellulosics by steam-aqueous pretreatments. Ethanol produced from lignocellulosic raw materials is a biofuel that meets these requirements. 2010). Elsevier, pp 157172. For poplar, switch grass, spruce, and corn stover, sulfuric acid pretreatment is commonly used. 2011 ). Recovery of ethanol and water reduces the overall cost of the pretreatment. Lignocellulosic biomass is recalcitrant due to its heterogeneous structure, which is one of the major limitations for its use as a feedstock for methane production. Fragmentation of lignocellulosic material occurs due to turbulent material flow and rapid flashing of material to atmospheric pressure [86, 87, 88]. This manuscript does not contain any individual persons data. However, the main problem that hinders its frequent use is the tight bonding within its constituents that include cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Adaptability to modifications, no degradation products, controllable environment, and high throughput are few advantages related to mechanical extrusion pretreatment process. Single screw extruder and twin screw extruder are two types of extruders. Ultra-high pressure (UHP) processing is widely used as an advantageous nonthermal technique for food treatment at room temperature (Phunchaisri and Apichartsrangkoon 2005 ; Suarez-Jacobo et al. PMC For wet material, colloid mill, dissolver, and fibrillator are suitable, whereas for dry materials hammer mill, extruder, cryogenic mill, and roller mill are used. - 146.185.133.21. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2014.10.072, Fu SF, Wang F, Shi XS, Guo R-B (2016) Impacts of microaeration on the anaerobic digestion of corn straw and the microbial community structure. Longer residence time of ozone is caused by the blockage of pores by water film [77]. About 49% lignin degradation was observed when corn stover was pretreated with ozonolysis in a study by Williams [85]. Thus, TMP can be considered to be an efficient pretreatment process for AD when methane yield enhancement is a primary concern. Biological Pretreatment Strategies for Second-Generation Lignocellulosic Resources to Enhance Biogas Production. 1184, pp 149. Though several pretreatment regimes are available, biological pretreatment seems to be promising being an eco-friendly process and there is no inhibitor generation during the process. When SPORL treatment was applied with optimized conditions, 97% lignin and 93% hemicellulose were removed from water hyacinth, and 90% hemicellulose and 75% lignin were achieved for rice husk [98]. The information provided in this paper, will endow readers with the background knowledge necessary for finding a promising solution to methane production. Front Energy Res Bioenergy Biofuels. Based on these properties, microwave reactors can be divided into two types, one that allows the passage of microwaves, whereas the other kind reflects the microwaves. Inhibitor formation is triggered by long reaction, high temperature, and acid concentrations [59, 60]. [71] for the pretreatment of switch grass in order to remove lignin at a temperature of 160C for 3hours. The most important and abundant renewable biomass resources include crop residues, such as corn straw, wheat straw and rice straw. To find the optimum pretreatments for biomaterials containing various l Unlike dry torrefaction, pressurized vessel of water is used to carry out the pretreatment. government site. In: Pandey A, Negi S, Binod P, Larroch C (eds) Pretreatment of biomass processes and technologies, 1st edn. 2016). Epub 2018 Jul 9. By Najiah Nadir, Nur Liyana Ismail and Azlan Shah Hus By Hamid Rezaei, Fahimeh Yazdanpanah, Jim Choon Lim, By Flora Beltrn-Ramrez, Domancar Orona-Tamayo, Ivet IntechOpen Limited The relative abundance of phylum Firmicutes (especially class Bacilli, order Bacillales) was higher under microaerobic conditions than anaerobic conditions, which enables and increase in extracellular enzymes, reducing sugar, volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) under microaerobic condition. Degradation of sugar in alkali treatment is less than that by acid treatment, and also the removal and recovery of caustic salt are possible and easy in case of alkali treatment. 2013). Using lime kiln technology, calcium hydroxide can be regenerated. -, Barakat A, Mayer C, Solhy A, Arancon RAD, De Vries H, Luque R, Barakat A, Mayer C, Solhy A, Arancon RAD, De Vries H. Mechanical pretreatments of lignocellulosic biomass: towards facile and environmentally sound technologies for biofuels production. 2. However, according to a study, these traditional methods of pretreatment are cost intensive, as additional chemicals or energy are required (Lim and Wang 2013). However, amount of the production of inhibitors in wet oxidation pretreatment is certainly less than that of liquid hot water pretreatment or steam explosion method. Sample was placed between two parallel plate electrodes, and the strength of electric field is given as E=V/d, where V and d are voltage and distance, respectively, between plate electrodes. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2015.09.029, Fu SF, Shi XS, Xu XH, Wang CS, Wang L, Dai M, Guo R-B (2015c) Secondary thermophilic microaerobic treatment in the anaerobic digestion of corn straw. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. -. Steam explosion (SE) is a well-known technique for the pretreatment of various biomass feedstocks. Under high-pressure steam injection or indirect heat injection, high temperature between 160 and 250C is provided to lignocellulosic material in conventional heating methods. The physical pretreatment includes mechanical (chopping, milling, extrusion, pelletizing, briquetting), irradiation, ultrasonication, CO 2 laser-plasma, and the broad sub-category of thermal pretreatments, i.e., steam explosion and hydrothermal [3] , [13] , [45] . Glass or plastic is the building material of the first type of microwave reactors, whereas the second types of reactors are composed of steel. Energy 46:644648. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic biomass for anaerobic digestion, $$ {\text{Digestibility}} = 2.04\left( {\text{Specific surface area}} \right)^{0.99} \times\left ({100 - {\text{Crystallinity index}}} \right) \,\times\left( {\text{Lignin content}} \right)^{{- 0.39}} $$, $$ {\text{log R}}_{0} {\text{ = log}}\left( {{\text{t}}*{\text{e}}^{{\left( {\frac{{({\text{T}} - 100)}}{14.75}} \right)}} } \right) $$, $$ {\text{Combined Severity}}\, {\text{Factor }}\left( {\text{CSF}} \right) = \log {\text{R}}_{0} - {\text{ pH, where R}}_{0} {\text{ = t}}^{{{\text{exp }}\left[ {\frac{{ {\text{T}}_{\text{R}} - {\text{T}}_{\text{H}} }}{14.75}} \right]}} $$, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13568-017-0375-4, http://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-333936323031, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. By employing these conditions, more than 90% substrate was converted to cellulose when cellulase of 14.6FPU and 22.5CBU -glucosidase was used in hydrolysis. Such information is essential for the efficient and feasible utilization of different agricultural residues. Maleic acid has khyd/kdeg, due to which hydrolysis of cellulose to glucose is preferred over glucose breakdown. However, the most cost-effective and favorable treatments among these still need to be identified. Pretreatment methods for lignocellulosic biomass can be broadly classified into four groups - physical, chemical, physio-chemical and biological. The susceptibility of acid-pretreated biomass to cellulase treatment increases with an increase in the pretreatment severity and leads to high, nearly theoretical glucose yields. Certain factors like reaction time, oxygen pressure, and temperature effect the efficiency of wet oxidation pretreatment process. 2009). in this regard, the effectiveness of a pretreatment method depends on its ability to: (1) delignify the lcb without much alteration in the native lignin structure, (2) low energy consumption, (3) cost-effective operation, (4) reduce the crystallinity index of cellulose, (5) reduce the particle size of lcb in order to enhance the surface area for High temperatures trigger more side reactions and negative side effects like reducing ionic liquid stability [73]. 2015a). Physical methods. Classical pretreatment methods were carried out at high pressure and temperatures. Biomass recalcitrance: engineering plants and enzymes for biofuels production. Efforts to improve the degradation of hemicellulose at high temperature lead to the formation of inhibitory compounds like furfural and furfuraldehydes. In this method, water in liquid form remains in contact with lignocellulosic biomass for about 15min. It has been also reported that 2.5% KOH-treated CS generates maximum methane yield of 295mL/gVS, and significantly improved 95.6% with regard to untreated CS (Li et al. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2009.10.066, Li J, Zhang R, Abdul M, Siddhu H, He Y, Wang W, Li Y, Chen C, Liu G (2015a) Enhancing methane production of corn stover through a novel way: sequent pretreatment of potassium hydroxide and steam explosion. Pretreatment is an important step involved in the production of bioethanol from lignocelluosic biomass. Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. High temperature favors hydrolysis by dilute sulfuric acid [50]. Structural features resulting from lime pretreatment affect the hydrolysis of pretreated biomass. Agricultural residues, such as lignocellulosic materials (LM), are the most attractive renewable bioenergy sources and are abundantly found in nature. Effect of Tetracycline Antibiotics on Anaerobic Digestion of Chicken Manure Based on Data Mining. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefining 1:119134. [72] on palm tree pretreatment with 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal The physio-chemical process utilizes steam or steam and gases, like SO 2 and CO 2. Biomass used for wet torrefaction contains moisture content, but after torrefaction, a drying process is necessary in this type of torrefaction. Teflon-coated sensors are a good choice because of the thermostability, corrosion-free nature, and zero absorbance properties. One is the combustible nature of oxygen, and the other is the high cost of hydrogen peroxide used in the process [94]. Renew Energy. Pretreatment of biomass under acidic conditions This process involves the treatment of lignocellulosic biomass with different acids such as sulfuric acid, oxalic acid, peracetic acid, respectively. So for the treatment of biomass with high lignin content, AFEX pretreatment is not a suitable choice. Effect of SPORL pretreatment was studied by Zhu etal. Bioenergy products like bioethanol, biohydrogen, and biodiesel can be obtained from lignocellulose biomass which is considerably large renewable bioresource and obtained from plants. Torrefaction is an emerging technique which is also known as mild pyrolysis. Bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol has shown environmental, economic and energetic advantages in comparison to bioethanol produced from sugar or starch. Ionic liquids actually compete for hydrogen bonding with lignocellulosic components, and in this competition disruption of network occurs. In addition, some useful information for policy makers and researchers is given. Both levoglucosan kinase activity and transport capacity limit the utilization of levoglucosan in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. There are certain variable factors like catalyst type, temperature, and concentration of solvent and reaction time which affects the characteristics of pretreated biomass like crystallinity, fiber length, and degree of polymerization. Results showed 62.9% lignin removal enhanced enzymatic digestibility, and reduced cellulose crystallinity was reported by Tan etal. Organosolv is not a cost-effective pretreatment process because of the high cost of catalysts, but it can be made cost-effective by recovering and recycling of solvents. Solvent removal is important because its presence effects fermentation, microorganism growth, and enzymatic hydrolysis. With a fluid velocity of 1cm/min and temperature of 150170C and residence time of 14minutes, aqueous ammonia passes through biomass in this pretreatment, and ammonia is recovered afterwards. On the other hand, biological pretreatment requires live microorganisms for the treatment of lignocellulosic material, and this method is more environment friendly and consumes less energy. PubMed A positive balance of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere and limited resources of fossil fuels necessitate the search for alternative energy sources, the production of which is based on renewable resources and creates a real chance to reduce environmental pollution. A twofold increase in hydrolysis yield from sugarcane bagasse was observed in a study by Kuo and Lee [70] as compared to untreated bagasse. Milling reduces the crystallinity of cellulose, the substrate particle size and the degree of polymerization. The outcome of pretreatment also differs due to the difference in the ratio of cell wall components [10, 11]. Enzymatic degradation can be improved by milling as it reduces the degree of crystallinity and material size. The next step is spraying of this slurried lime on biomass; after spray, store the biomass for hours or, in some case, days. Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is essential to advance its fragmentation and lower the lignin content for sustainable energy generation. Thermochemical conversion of biomass into biofuels can be performed via three technologies, gasification, pyrolysis, and direct combustion [38]. Biofuels produced from various lignocellulosic materials, such as wood, agricultural, or forest residues, have the potential to be a valuable substitute for, or complement to, gasoline. There are certain microorganism present in nature that exhibit cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic abilities. For better results of hydrolysis, milling can be used in combination with enzymatic hydrolysis. Ammonia can be recovered and reused because of its volatility. Pretreatments for delignification are required for the enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomasses. The objective is to identify the strengths and weaknesses of various technologies and to find a pretreatment method suitable for industrial-scale adoption. Based upon the literature studies, it is concluded that each pretreatment method has its own merits and demerits. eCollection 2022. Dilute acid hydrolysis pretreatment on the other hand can achieve high reaction rates and significantly improve cellulose hydrolysis. doi: 10.1016/j.apcbee.2014.01.030. For corn straw biomass, it has been observed that with an increase in the CSF of acid pretreatment from 0.5 to 2.2, a substantially increased glucose release after enzymatic saccharification, from 32 to 57% (mass glucan/mass untreated biomass) could be achieved (Lloyd and Wyman 2005). We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the worlds most-cited researchers. These pretreatments are beneficial in one way or other in accomplishing the partial hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomasses. Biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass reduces the emission of greenhouse gases. Pretreatment is an essential step to disrupt the structure of lignocellulosic biomass. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0912073107. Acetic acid is released as wood components are exposed to high-temperature steam, which further catalyze hydrolytic reactions of the constituent polymers. Structural changes in lignin are observed by Bule etal. eCollection 2021. Lignin is hardly dissolved in most cases, but is disrupted to a high degree, thus leading to increased susceptibility of the cellulose to the enzymes (Mudhoo 2012). Temperature and solid loadings for the first type are >160C and 510%, respectively, and for the second type, temperature and solid loadings are around<160C and 1040%, respectively [51, 52]. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Microfibrils that are formed by cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin help in the stability of plant cell wall structure [5, 6]. In a study by Park etal. Recovery of many products like enzymes, methane, activated carbon, lipids, resins, methane, carbohydrates, surfactants, resins, organic acids, ethanol, amino acids, degradable plastic composites, biosorbents, biopesticides, and biopromoters can be achieved by utilizing LCW. Ionic liquid pretreatment is less preferred over other techniques because of high thermal and chemical stability, less dangerous conditions for processing, low vapor pressure of solvents, and retaining liquid state at wide range of temperature.
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